In modern psychology, cognitive dissonance is the discomfort experienced when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions: ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel "disequilibrium": frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.
The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse. Festinger subsequently published a book called "A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance" in which he outlines the theory. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance
NOTES:
In modern mindset, intellectual dissonance is the discomfort knowledgeable when simultaneously holding two or more inconsistent cognitions: concepts, principles, principles or psychological reactions. In a condition of dissonance, people may sometimes experience "disequilibrium": disappointment, hunger, worry, pity, rage, discomfort, anxiety, etc.[1] The phrase was created by Leon Festinger in his 1956 guide When Prediction Is not able, which chronicled the followers of a UFO conspiracy as truth clashed with their ardent understanding in an upcoming apocalypse.[2][3] Festinger consequently (1957) published a guide called A Idea of Cognitive Dissonance in which he describes the idea. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most significant and substantially analyzed concepts in public mindset.
The theory of intellectual dissonance in public mindset suggests that people have a inspirational drive to decrease dissonance by changing current cognitions, including new ones to create a regular understanding system, or on the other hand by reducing the value of any one of the dissonant components.[1] It is the upsetting condition of mind that people experience when they "find themselves doing factors that don't fit with what they know, or having views that do not fit with other views they keep."[4] A key supposition is that people want their objectives to meet truth, developing a feeling of stability.[5] Likewise, another supposition is that a personal will prevent circumstances or details resources that cause emotions of discomfort, or dissonance.[1]
Cognitive dissonance theory explains individual actions by positing that people have a tendency to look for for consonance between their objectives and truth. According to Festinger, people practice a procedure he termed "dissonance reduction", which can be achieved in one of three ways: lowering the value of one of the discordant aspects, including consonant components, or modifying one of the dissonant aspects.[6] This tendency sheds light on otherwise confusing, unreasonable, and even dangerous actions.
Contents [hide]
1 Idea and research
1.1 Belief disconfirmation paradigm
1.2 Induced-compliance paradigm
1.3 Free-choice paradigm
1.4 Attempt justified reason paradigm
2 Examples
2.1 "The Fox and the Grapes"
2.2 Other appropriate phenomena
3 Programs of research
3.1 Education
3.2 Therapy
3.3 Advertising healthier and pro-social behavior
3.4 Marketing
3.5 Social engineering
4 Difficulties and qualifications
5 Brain
6 Modelling in sensory networks
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 New media
11 Exterior links
Theory and analysis [edit]
Most of the analysis on intellectual dissonance takes the way of one of four major paradigms. Essential analysis generated by the idea has been concerned with the repercussions of exposure to details unreliable with a before understanding, what happens after people act in methods that are unreliable with their before behavior, what happens after people create choices, and the consequences of effort expenses.
Belief disconfirmation design [edit]
Dissonance is turned on when people are confronted with details that is unreliable with their principles. If the dissonance is not reduced by modifying a person's understanding, the dissonance can outcome in repairing consonance through misperception, being rejected or refutation of the details, seeking assistance from others who share the, and attempting to convince others.
An beginning edition of intellectual dissonance theory appeared in Leon Festinger's 1956 guide, When Prediction Is not able. This guide gives an consideration of the deepening of conspiracy members' faith following the failure of a cult's prophecy that a UFO landing was upcoming. The followers met at a pre-determined position and time, knowing they alone would survive the Planet's devastation. The hired time came and passed without occurrence. They experienced acute intellectual dissonance: had they been the victim of a hoax? Had they contributed their life belongings in vain? Most associates select to believe something less dissonant to manage truth not meeting their expectations: they believed that the aliens had given world a second chance, and the team was now motivated to propagate the word that earth-spoiling must quit. The team considerably improved their proselytism despite the failed prophecy.[7]
Induced-compliance design [edit]
In Festinger and Carlsmith's traditional 1959 research, learners were requested to spend an hour on boring and boring projects (e.g., turning pegs a quarter turn, over and over again). The projects were developed to generate a powerful, adverse mind-set. Once the topics had done this, the experimenters requested some of them to do a simple favor. They were requested to talk to another topic (actually an actor) and convince the impostor that the projects were exciting and interesting. Some associates were compensated $20 (equivalent to $158 in current day terms[8]) for this favor, another team was compensated $1 (equivalent to $8 in current day terms[8]), and a management team was not requested to perform the favor.
After someone has performed dissonant actions, they might discover external consonant components. A reptile oil salesperson might discover a justified reason for promoting false information (e.g. large personal gain), but may otherwise need to modify his views about the false information themselves.
When requested to rate the boring projects at the conclusion of the research (not in the use of the other "subject"), those in the $1 team ranked them more favorably than those in the $20 and management categories. This was described by Festinger and Carlsmith as proof for intellectual dissonance. The scientists theorized that people knowledgeable dissonance between the inconsistent cognitions, "I informed someone that the procedure was interesting", and "I actually discovered it boring." When compensated only $1, learners were compelled to internalize the mind-set they were triggered to express, because they had no other justified reason. Those in the $20 scenario, however, had an obvious external justified reason for their behavior, and thus knowledgeable less dissonance.[9]
In following tests, an alternative technique of causing dissonance has become typical. In this analysis, experimenters use counter-attitudinal essay-writing, in which people are compensated different amounts of cash (e.g. $1 or $10) for composing articles showing views contrary to their own. People compensated only a small sum of cash have less external justified reason for their inconsistency and must produce inner justified reason to be able to decrease the excellent level of dissonance that they are experiencing.
A version of the induced-compliance design is the not allowed toy design. An research by Aronson and Carlsmith in 1963 analyzed self-justification in kids.[10] In this research, kids were left in a space with a variety of toys, including a highly suitable toy steam-shovel (or other toy). Upon leaving the space, the experimenter informed 50 percent the kids that there would be a serious penalties if they performed with that particular toy and informed the other 50 percent that there would be a light penalties. All of the kids in the research refrained from enjoying with the toy.[10] Later, when the kids were informed that they could easily perform with whatever toy they wanted, the ones in the light penalties scenario were less likely to perform with the toy, even though the risk had been removed. The kids who were only slightly confronted had to justify to themselves why they did not perform with the toy. The level of penalties by itself was not powerful enough, so the kids had to convince themselves that the toy was not value enjoying with to be able to manage their dissonance.[10]
A 2012 research using a edition of the not allowed toy design revealed that enjoying songs decreases the growth of intellectual dissonance.[11] The management number of four-year-old kids were informed to prevent enjoying with a particular toy with no songs enjoying in the qualifications. After enjoying alone, the kids later devalued the not allowed toy in their ranking, which is identical outcomes to earlier research. However, in the different team, traditional songs was performed in the qualifications while the kids performed alone. In that team, the kids did not later decrease the value of the toy. The scientists determined that songs may restrict cognitions that outcome in dissonance decrease.[11] Music is not the only example of an outside force reducing post-decisional dissonance; a 2010 research revealed that hand-washing had a identical impact.[12]
Free-choice design [edit]
In a different kind of research performed by Jack Brehm, 225 female learners ranked a series of typical equipment and were then allowed to select one of two equipment to take home as a gift. A second round of scores revealed that the associates improved their scores of the item they select, and reduced their scores of the refused item.[13]
This can be described with regards to intellectual dissonance. When developing a difficult choice, there are always aspects of the refused choice that one discovers appealing and these features are dissonant with selecting something else. In other words, the knowledge, "I select X" is dissonant with the knowledge, "There are some factors I like about Y." More research have discovered identical outcomes in four-year-old kids and capuchin apes.[14]
In inclusion to inner deliberations, the constructing of choices among other people may be a factor in how an personal acts. Researchers in a 2010 research analyzed public choices and standards as appropriate to salary providing in a straight line manner among three people. The first participant’s actions affected the second’s own salary providing. The scientists claim that inequity aversion is the critical concern of the associates.[15]
Effort justified reason design [edit]
Further information: Attempt justification
Dissonance is turned on whenever people willingly practice an upsetting action to accomplish some desired objective. Dissonance can be reduced by fueling the desirability of the objective. Aronson & Mills[16] had people go through a serious or light "initiation" to be able to become a member of a team. In the severe-initiation scenario, the people engaged in an unpleasant action. The team they joined turned out to be very boring and boring. The people in the severe-initiation scenario analyzed the team as more exciting than the people in the mild-initiation scenario.
All of the above paradigms keep be used in successful analysis.
Washing a person's hands has been proven to eliminate post-decisional dissonance, presumably because the dissonance is often due to ethical outrage (with oneself), which is appropriate to outrage from unclean circumstances.[17][18]
Examples [edit]
"The Fox and the Grapes" [edit]
A traditional illustration of intellectual dissonance is indicated in the fantasy "The Fox and the Grapes" by Aesop (ca. 620–564 BCE). In the story, a fox recognizes some high-hanging vineyard and wishes to eat them. When the fox is unable to think of a way to reach them, he chooses that the vineyard are probably not value eating, with the justified reason the vineyard probably are not perfect or that they are bitter (hence the typical phrase "sour grapes"). This example follows a pattern: one desires something, discovers it unachievable, and decreases a person's dissonance by demeaning it. Jon Elster calls this design "adaptive preference formation".[19]
Other appropriate phenomena [edit]
Cognitive dissonance has also been confirmed to happen when people look for for to:
Explain mysterious feelings: When a catastrophe occurs in a community, irrationally afraid gossips propagate in nearby areas not engaged in the catastrophe because of the need of those who are not confronted to justify their stresses [20]
Minimize repent of permanent choices: Players at a race track are more confident in their selected horse just after placing the bet because they cannot modify it (the gamblers felt "post-decision dissonance").[21]
Justify actions that opposed their views: Students assess cheating less roughly after being triggered to deceive on a test.[22]
Align a person's views of a personal with a person's behavior toward that person: the Ben Franklin impact represents that statesman's declaration that the act of doing a favor for a competing leads to improved beneficial emotions toward that personal.
Reaffirm already organised beliefs: Congeniality tendency (also referred to as Verification Bias) represents how people study or accessibility details that suggests their already established views, rather than referencing material that opposes them.[23] For example, a personal who is politically traditional might only study magazines and watch information comments that is from traditional information resources. This tendency appears to be particularly apparent when experienced with deeply organised principles, i.e., when a personal has 'high commitment' to his or her behavior.[23]
There are other methods that intellectual dissonance is engaged in forming our views about people, as well as our own details (as discussed more in the segments below). For example, self-evaluation maintenance theory indicates that people experience dissonance when their valued skills or attributes are outmatched by close public connections (e.g. June the artist seems dissonance because she is friends with a master painter; June can either proper care less about artwork or manage her feeling of inferiority in another way).
Balance theory indicates people have a common propensity to look for for consonance between their views, and the views or features of others (e.g., a spiritual believer may experience dissonance because their partner does not have the same principles as he or she does, thus encouraging the believer to justify or justify this incongruence). People may self disability so that any problems during a important procedure are easier to justify (e.g., the student who drinks the night before a important examination in response to his worry of doing poorly).
Applications of analysis [edit]
In inclusion to describing certain counter-intuitive individual behavior, the idea of intellectual dissonance has practical applications in several areas.
Education [edit]
An instructor might present topics by challenging kids' intuitions. For example, a student may be more willing to learn the real cause of the seasons after incorrectly wondering that it has something to do with changes in the Planet's distance from the Sun.
Creating and solving intellectual dissonance can have a powerful impact on clients’ inspiration for studying.[24] For example, scientists have used your time as well as justified reason design to improve clients’ passion for academic actions by offering no external compensate for clients’ efforts: young children who completed questions with the promise of a compensate were less interested in the questions later, as compared to young children who were provided no compensate in the first position.[25] The scientists determined that learners who can feature their perform to an outside compensate leave the workplace in the absence of that compensate, while those who are compelled to feature their perform to implicit inspiration came to discover the procedure genuinely enjoyable.
Psychologists have integrated intellectual dissonance into designs of primary procedures of studying, especially constructivist designs. Several academic treatments have been developed to promote dissonance in learners by improving their awareness of disputes between before principles and new details (e.g., by demanding learners to protect before beliefs) and then providing or directing learners to new, appropriate details that will manage the disputes.[26]
For example, scientists have developed academic software that features these principles to be able to accomplish student asking of complex topic.[27] Meta-analytic methods recommend that treatments that cause intellectual dissonance to accomplish instructed conceptual modify have been confirmed across numerous research to significantly improve studying in science and studying.[26]
Therapy [edit]
The common efficiency of psychiatric therapy and psychological involvement has been described in part through intellectual dissonance theory.[28] Some public specialists have recommended that the act of easily selecting a specific treatment, together with your time as well as and cash spent by the consumer to be able to keep practice the selected treatment, favorably impacts the potency of treatment.[29] This trend was confirmed in a research with overweight kids, in which causing the kids to believe that they easily select the kind of treatment they received resulted in higher weight-loss.[30]
In another example, people with ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) who spent important effort to practice actions without healing value for their scenario, but which had been created as legitimate and appropriate treatment, revealed important improvement in phobic symptoms.[31] In these cases and perhaps in many the same scenario, patients came to experience better to be able to justify their initiatives and to ratify their choices. Beyond these observed short-term results, effort expenses in treatment also forecasts long-term healing modify.[32]
Promoting healthier and pro-social actions [edit]
It has also been confirmed that intellectual dissonance can be used to promote suitable behavior such as improved condom use.[33] Other research recommend that intellectual dissonance can also be used to encourage people to practice prosocial behavior under various situations such as campaigning against littering,[34] reducing tendency to national unprivileged,[35] and complying with anti-speeding campaigns.[36] The theory can also be used to describe factors for giving to charitable organisation.[37][38]
Marketing [edit]
Research and understanding of intellectual dissonance in customers shows potential for developing promotion methods. Existing literary works indicates that three main circumstances exist for excitement of dissonance in purchases: the choice engaged in the buy must create a difference, such as, participation of a lot of cash or psychological cost and be personally appropriate to the consumer; the customer has a freedom in selecting among the alternatives, finally; the choice participation must be permanent.[39]
A research performed by She Mallikin shows that when customers experience an unexpected cost experience they embrace three methods to decrease dissonance.[40] Consumers may implement the technique of continuous details, they may have a modify in mind-set, or they may practice trivialization. Consumers implement the technique of continuous details by interesting in tendency and look for for details that will assistance their before principles. Consumers might look for for details about other retailers and alternative items reliable with their declares.
Alternatively, customers may display modify in mind-set such as re-evaluate cost in regards to external referrals costs or feature excellent or low costs with quality. Finally, trivialization may happen and the value of the components of the dissonant connection is reduced and customer tend to trivialize significance of cash, and thus, of shopping around, saving, and receiving a better deal.
Cognitive dissonance is also useful to describe and manage post-purchase issues. If a customer seems that an alternate buy would have been better it is likely he will not buy the item again. To reverse this marketers have to convince the customer constantly that the item meets his or her need and thereby help to decrease his intellectual dissonance and ensure repurchase of the same brand in the future.[citation needed]
At times intellectual resonance is triggered rather than settled to market items. The Characteristic Cards tag range “When you proper care enough to send the very best” is an example of a technique that creates pity in the customer if he or she goes for a less costly card. The competitive promotion ensures that the receiver also is aware that the item has a premium cost. This motivates the customer to buy the costly cards on special events.[citation needed]
Social technological innovation [edit]
This section requires expansion. (August 2012)
Social technological innovation as applied to security is the exploitation of various public and psychological flaws in people and business components, sometimes for transmission testing but more often for dubious factors, such as espionage against businesses, agencies, and people, typically toward the end of obtaining some illegal obtain, either of useful but restricted or personal details or for money through such methods as phishing to obtain savings consideration accessibility, or for factors of identity fraud, blackmail, and so forth. Exploitation of flaws due to causing intellectual dissonance in objectives is one of the methods used by criminals.
Challenges and credentials [edit]
A attorney may experience the adverse stress of dissonance if they must protect, and call "innocent", a customer that they think is actually guilty. On Aronson's view, however, the attorney may experience dissonance specifically because incorrectly calling the accused "innocent" disputes with the attorney's own self-concept of being an sincere personal.
Daryl Bem was an beginning writer of intellectual dissonance theory. He suggested self-perception theory as a more parsimonious alternative description of the trial outcomes. According to Bem, people do not think much about their behavior, let alone whether they are incompatible. Bem considered people in the Festinger and Carlsmith research or the induced-compliance design as inferring their behavior from their actions. Thus, when requested "Did you get the procedure interesting?" they decided that they must have discovered it exciting because that is what they informed someone. Bem recommended that people compensated $20 had a significant, external motivation for their actions and were likely to understand the cash as their reason for saying the procedure was exciting, rather than finishing that they actually discovered it exciting.[41][42]
In many trial circumstances, Bem's theory and Festinger's dissonance theory create identical forecasts, but only dissonance theory forecasts the use of upsetting stress or excitement.Lab tests have confirmed the use of excitement in dissonance circumstances.[43][44] This provides assistance for intellectual dissonance theory and creates it unlikely that self-perception by itself can consideration for all the lab outcomes.
In 1969, Elliot Aronson reformulated the idea by connecting it to the self-concept, making clear that intellectual dissonance occurs from disputes between cognitions when those disputes endanger a person's normally beneficial self-image. Thus, Aronson reinterpreted the outcomes of the unique Festinger and Carlsmith research using the induced-compliance design, revealing that the dissonance was between the knowledge, "I am an sincere person" and the knowledge, "I humiliated to someone about finding the procedure exciting."[45] Other specialists have recommended that maintaining intellectual reliability is a way to protect public self-image, rather than personal self-concept.[46] However, a latest outcome [47] seems to rule out such an description by showing revaluation of items following a choice even when people have neglected their choices.
During the 1980's, Cooper and Fazio recommended that dissonance was due to aversive repercussions, rather than inconsistency. According to this presentation, the fact that lying is incorrect and painful, not the inconsistency between cognitions, is what creates people experience bad.[48] Subsequent analysis, however, discovered that people experience dissonance even when they experience they have not done anything incorrect. For example, Harmon-Jones and co-workers revealed that people experience dissonance even when the repercussions of their statements are beneficial—as when they convince if perhaps you are learners to use contraceptives, when they, themselves are not using contraceptives.[49]
Chen and co-workers have belittled the free-choice design and have recommended that the "Rank, choice, rank" technique of studying dissonance is incorrect.[50] They claim that analysis design relies on the supposition that, if the topic rates choices in a different way in the second survey, then the model's behavior towards the choices have therefore changed. They display that there are other factors one might get different rankings in the second survey—perhaps the topics were mostly unsociable between choices. Although some follow-up research have discovered helpful proof for Chen's issues,[51] other research that have controlled for Chen's issues have not, instead indicating that the mere act of developing a choice can indeed modify choices.[14][52][53] Nevertheless, this issue remains under effective investigation.[54]
Brain [edit]
There is proof indicating that the more the anterior cingulate cortex alerts issue, the more dissonance a personal experiences and the more their behavior may modify.
Using fMRI, Van Veen and co-workers examined the sensory basis of intellectual dissonance in a customized edition of the traditional triggered complying design. While in the scanning device, associates "argued" that the unpleasant MRI environment was nevertheless a enjoyable experience. The scientists duplicated the primary triggered complying findings; associates in an trial team enjoyed the scanning device more than associates in a management team who simply were compensated to create their discussion.[55]
Importantly, replying counter-attitudinally triggered the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insular cortex; furthermore, the level to which these regions were triggered expected personal participants' level of mind-set modify. Van Veen and co-workers claim that these outcomes assistance the unique dissonance theory by Festinger, and assistance the "conflict theory" of anterior cingulate functioning.[55]
Using the 100 % free choice design, Sharot and co-workers have proven that after developing a choice, action in the striatum changes to reflect the new assessment of the choice item, improving if the item was selected and reducing if it was refused.[56] Follow-up research have mostly confirmed these outcomes.[52][57][58]
There may be transformative causes behind intellectual dissonance decrease. Researchers in a 2007 research analyzed how pre-school kids and Capuchin apes responded when provided the choice between two identical choices. The scientists had the two topic categories select between two different kinds of decals and sweets. After selecting, the two categories were provided a new choice between the item not selected and a in the same way attractive choice as the first. In range with intellectual dissonance theory, the kids and the apes select the “novel” choice over their initially unchosen choice, even though all had identical principles. The scientists determined that there were possible growth and transformative causes behind intellectual dissonance decrease.[59]
Subsequent research have been done using functional magnetic resonance picture (FMRI) technology to examine the decision-making procedure in the mind. A 2010 research revealed that during decision-making procedures where the individual is trying to decrease dissonance, action improved according to the FMRI check out in the right-inferior front gyrus, inside fronto-parietal region and ventral striatum, whereas action reduced in the anterior insula.[58] Researchers determined that clarification action may take position quickly (within seconds) without conscious thought. Moreover, the scientists stated that the mind may interact with psychological reactions in the decision-making procedure.[58]
Modeling in sensory systems [edit]
Neural system designs of knowledge have provided the necessary structure to incorporate the scientific analysis done on intellectual dissonance and behavior into one design of description of mind-set growth and modify.[60]
Various sensory system designs have been developed to predict how intellectual dissonance will influence an person's mind-set and actions. These include:
Parallel Restriction Fulfillment Processes[60]
The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes[61]
Adaptive connectionist design of intellectual dissonance[62]
Attitudes as constraint satisfaction model[63]
See also [edit]
Affective forecasting
Ambivalence, particularly the referrals to The discomfort of ambivalence and methods to manage it,[64] Love–hate connection and Breaking (psychology)
Antiprocess
Buyer's repent is a way of post-decision dissonance.
Choice-supportive tendency is a storage tendency that creates past choices seem better than they actually were.
Cognitive bias
Cognitive distortion
Cognitive inertia
Cultural dissonance is dissonance on a larger scale.
Double combine is a communicative scenario where a personal gets different or unclear messages.
Double awareness is getting pregnant of the self both as itself and as society's picture of it.
Doublethink is an idea current in Henry Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four that allows a personal to keep two unclear concepts simultaneously and accept both of them as appropriate.
Effort justified reason is the propensity to feature a higher (than objective) value to an outcome which demands an excellent effort to be able to manage a dissonance.
Emotional issue is the existence in the unconscious of different and opposite emotions concerning the same scenario.
The Great Frustration of 1844 is an example of intellectual dissonance in a spiritual perspective.
Illusion-of-truth impact declares that a personal is more likely to believe a familiar declaration than an unfamiliar one.
Information overload
Metanoia (psychology)
Shame
Speciesism
Techniques of neutralization
Terror management theory
True-believer syndrome shows carrying a post-cognitive-dissonance understanding regardless of new details.
Wishful thinking
Memory conformity
The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse. Festinger subsequently published a book called "A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance" in which he outlines the theory. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance
NOTES:
In modern mindset, intellectual dissonance is the discomfort knowledgeable when simultaneously holding two or more inconsistent cognitions: concepts, principles, principles or psychological reactions. In a condition of dissonance, people may sometimes experience "disequilibrium": disappointment, hunger, worry, pity, rage, discomfort, anxiety, etc.[1] The phrase was created by Leon Festinger in his 1956 guide When Prediction Is not able, which chronicled the followers of a UFO conspiracy as truth clashed with their ardent understanding in an upcoming apocalypse.[2][3] Festinger consequently (1957) published a guide called A Idea of Cognitive Dissonance in which he describes the idea. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most significant and substantially analyzed concepts in public mindset.
The theory of intellectual dissonance in public mindset suggests that people have a inspirational drive to decrease dissonance by changing current cognitions, including new ones to create a regular understanding system, or on the other hand by reducing the value of any one of the dissonant components.[1] It is the upsetting condition of mind that people experience when they "find themselves doing factors that don't fit with what they know, or having views that do not fit with other views they keep."[4] A key supposition is that people want their objectives to meet truth, developing a feeling of stability.[5] Likewise, another supposition is that a personal will prevent circumstances or details resources that cause emotions of discomfort, or dissonance.[1]
Cognitive dissonance theory explains individual actions by positing that people have a tendency to look for for consonance between their objectives and truth. According to Festinger, people practice a procedure he termed "dissonance reduction", which can be achieved in one of three ways: lowering the value of one of the discordant aspects, including consonant components, or modifying one of the dissonant aspects.[6] This tendency sheds light on otherwise confusing, unreasonable, and even dangerous actions.
Contents [hide]
1 Idea and research
1.1 Belief disconfirmation paradigm
1.2 Induced-compliance paradigm
1.3 Free-choice paradigm
1.4 Attempt justified reason paradigm
2 Examples
2.1 "The Fox and the Grapes"
2.2 Other appropriate phenomena
3 Programs of research
3.1 Education
3.2 Therapy
3.3 Advertising healthier and pro-social behavior
3.4 Marketing
3.5 Social engineering
4 Difficulties and qualifications
5 Brain
6 Modelling in sensory networks
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 New media
11 Exterior links
Theory and analysis [edit]
Most of the analysis on intellectual dissonance takes the way of one of four major paradigms. Essential analysis generated by the idea has been concerned with the repercussions of exposure to details unreliable with a before understanding, what happens after people act in methods that are unreliable with their before behavior, what happens after people create choices, and the consequences of effort expenses.
Belief disconfirmation design [edit]
Dissonance is turned on when people are confronted with details that is unreliable with their principles. If the dissonance is not reduced by modifying a person's understanding, the dissonance can outcome in repairing consonance through misperception, being rejected or refutation of the details, seeking assistance from others who share the, and attempting to convince others.
An beginning edition of intellectual dissonance theory appeared in Leon Festinger's 1956 guide, When Prediction Is not able. This guide gives an consideration of the deepening of conspiracy members' faith following the failure of a cult's prophecy that a UFO landing was upcoming. The followers met at a pre-determined position and time, knowing they alone would survive the Planet's devastation. The hired time came and passed without occurrence. They experienced acute intellectual dissonance: had they been the victim of a hoax? Had they contributed their life belongings in vain? Most associates select to believe something less dissonant to manage truth not meeting their expectations: they believed that the aliens had given world a second chance, and the team was now motivated to propagate the word that earth-spoiling must quit. The team considerably improved their proselytism despite the failed prophecy.[7]
Induced-compliance design [edit]
In Festinger and Carlsmith's traditional 1959 research, learners were requested to spend an hour on boring and boring projects (e.g., turning pegs a quarter turn, over and over again). The projects were developed to generate a powerful, adverse mind-set. Once the topics had done this, the experimenters requested some of them to do a simple favor. They were requested to talk to another topic (actually an actor) and convince the impostor that the projects were exciting and interesting. Some associates were compensated $20 (equivalent to $158 in current day terms[8]) for this favor, another team was compensated $1 (equivalent to $8 in current day terms[8]), and a management team was not requested to perform the favor.
After someone has performed dissonant actions, they might discover external consonant components. A reptile oil salesperson might discover a justified reason for promoting false information (e.g. large personal gain), but may otherwise need to modify his views about the false information themselves.
When requested to rate the boring projects at the conclusion of the research (not in the use of the other "subject"), those in the $1 team ranked them more favorably than those in the $20 and management categories. This was described by Festinger and Carlsmith as proof for intellectual dissonance. The scientists theorized that people knowledgeable dissonance between the inconsistent cognitions, "I informed someone that the procedure was interesting", and "I actually discovered it boring." When compensated only $1, learners were compelled to internalize the mind-set they were triggered to express, because they had no other justified reason. Those in the $20 scenario, however, had an obvious external justified reason for their behavior, and thus knowledgeable less dissonance.[9]
In following tests, an alternative technique of causing dissonance has become typical. In this analysis, experimenters use counter-attitudinal essay-writing, in which people are compensated different amounts of cash (e.g. $1 or $10) for composing articles showing views contrary to their own. People compensated only a small sum of cash have less external justified reason for their inconsistency and must produce inner justified reason to be able to decrease the excellent level of dissonance that they are experiencing.
A version of the induced-compliance design is the not allowed toy design. An research by Aronson and Carlsmith in 1963 analyzed self-justification in kids.[10] In this research, kids were left in a space with a variety of toys, including a highly suitable toy steam-shovel (or other toy). Upon leaving the space, the experimenter informed 50 percent the kids that there would be a serious penalties if they performed with that particular toy and informed the other 50 percent that there would be a light penalties. All of the kids in the research refrained from enjoying with the toy.[10] Later, when the kids were informed that they could easily perform with whatever toy they wanted, the ones in the light penalties scenario were less likely to perform with the toy, even though the risk had been removed. The kids who were only slightly confronted had to justify to themselves why they did not perform with the toy. The level of penalties by itself was not powerful enough, so the kids had to convince themselves that the toy was not value enjoying with to be able to manage their dissonance.[10]
A 2012 research using a edition of the not allowed toy design revealed that enjoying songs decreases the growth of intellectual dissonance.[11] The management number of four-year-old kids were informed to prevent enjoying with a particular toy with no songs enjoying in the qualifications. After enjoying alone, the kids later devalued the not allowed toy in their ranking, which is identical outcomes to earlier research. However, in the different team, traditional songs was performed in the qualifications while the kids performed alone. In that team, the kids did not later decrease the value of the toy. The scientists determined that songs may restrict cognitions that outcome in dissonance decrease.[11] Music is not the only example of an outside force reducing post-decisional dissonance; a 2010 research revealed that hand-washing had a identical impact.[12]
Free-choice design [edit]
In a different kind of research performed by Jack Brehm, 225 female learners ranked a series of typical equipment and were then allowed to select one of two equipment to take home as a gift. A second round of scores revealed that the associates improved their scores of the item they select, and reduced their scores of the refused item.[13]
This can be described with regards to intellectual dissonance. When developing a difficult choice, there are always aspects of the refused choice that one discovers appealing and these features are dissonant with selecting something else. In other words, the knowledge, "I select X" is dissonant with the knowledge, "There are some factors I like about Y." More research have discovered identical outcomes in four-year-old kids and capuchin apes.[14]
In inclusion to inner deliberations, the constructing of choices among other people may be a factor in how an personal acts. Researchers in a 2010 research analyzed public choices and standards as appropriate to salary providing in a straight line manner among three people. The first participant’s actions affected the second’s own salary providing. The scientists claim that inequity aversion is the critical concern of the associates.[15]
Effort justified reason design [edit]
Further information: Attempt justification
Dissonance is turned on whenever people willingly practice an upsetting action to accomplish some desired objective. Dissonance can be reduced by fueling the desirability of the objective. Aronson & Mills[16] had people go through a serious or light "initiation" to be able to become a member of a team. In the severe-initiation scenario, the people engaged in an unpleasant action. The team they joined turned out to be very boring and boring. The people in the severe-initiation scenario analyzed the team as more exciting than the people in the mild-initiation scenario.
All of the above paradigms keep be used in successful analysis.
Washing a person's hands has been proven to eliminate post-decisional dissonance, presumably because the dissonance is often due to ethical outrage (with oneself), which is appropriate to outrage from unclean circumstances.[17][18]
Examples [edit]
"The Fox and the Grapes" [edit]
A traditional illustration of intellectual dissonance is indicated in the fantasy "The Fox and the Grapes" by Aesop (ca. 620–564 BCE). In the story, a fox recognizes some high-hanging vineyard and wishes to eat them. When the fox is unable to think of a way to reach them, he chooses that the vineyard are probably not value eating, with the justified reason the vineyard probably are not perfect or that they are bitter (hence the typical phrase "sour grapes"). This example follows a pattern: one desires something, discovers it unachievable, and decreases a person's dissonance by demeaning it. Jon Elster calls this design "adaptive preference formation".[19]
Other appropriate phenomena [edit]
Cognitive dissonance has also been confirmed to happen when people look for for to:
Explain mysterious feelings: When a catastrophe occurs in a community, irrationally afraid gossips propagate in nearby areas not engaged in the catastrophe because of the need of those who are not confronted to justify their stresses [20]
Minimize repent of permanent choices: Players at a race track are more confident in their selected horse just after placing the bet because they cannot modify it (the gamblers felt "post-decision dissonance").[21]
Justify actions that opposed their views: Students assess cheating less roughly after being triggered to deceive on a test.[22]
Align a person's views of a personal with a person's behavior toward that person: the Ben Franklin impact represents that statesman's declaration that the act of doing a favor for a competing leads to improved beneficial emotions toward that personal.
Reaffirm already organised beliefs: Congeniality tendency (also referred to as Verification Bias) represents how people study or accessibility details that suggests their already established views, rather than referencing material that opposes them.[23] For example, a personal who is politically traditional might only study magazines and watch information comments that is from traditional information resources. This tendency appears to be particularly apparent when experienced with deeply organised principles, i.e., when a personal has 'high commitment' to his or her behavior.[23]
There are other methods that intellectual dissonance is engaged in forming our views about people, as well as our own details (as discussed more in the segments below). For example, self-evaluation maintenance theory indicates that people experience dissonance when their valued skills or attributes are outmatched by close public connections (e.g. June the artist seems dissonance because she is friends with a master painter; June can either proper care less about artwork or manage her feeling of inferiority in another way).
Balance theory indicates people have a common propensity to look for for consonance between their views, and the views or features of others (e.g., a spiritual believer may experience dissonance because their partner does not have the same principles as he or she does, thus encouraging the believer to justify or justify this incongruence). People may self disability so that any problems during a important procedure are easier to justify (e.g., the student who drinks the night before a important examination in response to his worry of doing poorly).
Applications of analysis [edit]
In inclusion to describing certain counter-intuitive individual behavior, the idea of intellectual dissonance has practical applications in several areas.
Education [edit]
An instructor might present topics by challenging kids' intuitions. For example, a student may be more willing to learn the real cause of the seasons after incorrectly wondering that it has something to do with changes in the Planet's distance from the Sun.
Creating and solving intellectual dissonance can have a powerful impact on clients’ inspiration for studying.[24] For example, scientists have used your time as well as justified reason design to improve clients’ passion for academic actions by offering no external compensate for clients’ efforts: young children who completed questions with the promise of a compensate were less interested in the questions later, as compared to young children who were provided no compensate in the first position.[25] The scientists determined that learners who can feature their perform to an outside compensate leave the workplace in the absence of that compensate, while those who are compelled to feature their perform to implicit inspiration came to discover the procedure genuinely enjoyable.
Psychologists have integrated intellectual dissonance into designs of primary procedures of studying, especially constructivist designs. Several academic treatments have been developed to promote dissonance in learners by improving their awareness of disputes between before principles and new details (e.g., by demanding learners to protect before beliefs) and then providing or directing learners to new, appropriate details that will manage the disputes.[26]
For example, scientists have developed academic software that features these principles to be able to accomplish student asking of complex topic.[27] Meta-analytic methods recommend that treatments that cause intellectual dissonance to accomplish instructed conceptual modify have been confirmed across numerous research to significantly improve studying in science and studying.[26]
Therapy [edit]
The common efficiency of psychiatric therapy and psychological involvement has been described in part through intellectual dissonance theory.[28] Some public specialists have recommended that the act of easily selecting a specific treatment, together with your time as well as and cash spent by the consumer to be able to keep practice the selected treatment, favorably impacts the potency of treatment.[29] This trend was confirmed in a research with overweight kids, in which causing the kids to believe that they easily select the kind of treatment they received resulted in higher weight-loss.[30]
In another example, people with ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) who spent important effort to practice actions without healing value for their scenario, but which had been created as legitimate and appropriate treatment, revealed important improvement in phobic symptoms.[31] In these cases and perhaps in many the same scenario, patients came to experience better to be able to justify their initiatives and to ratify their choices. Beyond these observed short-term results, effort expenses in treatment also forecasts long-term healing modify.[32]
Promoting healthier and pro-social actions [edit]
It has also been confirmed that intellectual dissonance can be used to promote suitable behavior such as improved condom use.[33] Other research recommend that intellectual dissonance can also be used to encourage people to practice prosocial behavior under various situations such as campaigning against littering,[34] reducing tendency to national unprivileged,[35] and complying with anti-speeding campaigns.[36] The theory can also be used to describe factors for giving to charitable organisation.[37][38]
Marketing [edit]
Research and understanding of intellectual dissonance in customers shows potential for developing promotion methods. Existing literary works indicates that three main circumstances exist for excitement of dissonance in purchases: the choice engaged in the buy must create a difference, such as, participation of a lot of cash or psychological cost and be personally appropriate to the consumer; the customer has a freedom in selecting among the alternatives, finally; the choice participation must be permanent.[39]
A research performed by She Mallikin shows that when customers experience an unexpected cost experience they embrace three methods to decrease dissonance.[40] Consumers may implement the technique of continuous details, they may have a modify in mind-set, or they may practice trivialization. Consumers implement the technique of continuous details by interesting in tendency and look for for details that will assistance their before principles. Consumers might look for for details about other retailers and alternative items reliable with their declares.
Alternatively, customers may display modify in mind-set such as re-evaluate cost in regards to external referrals costs or feature excellent or low costs with quality. Finally, trivialization may happen and the value of the components of the dissonant connection is reduced and customer tend to trivialize significance of cash, and thus, of shopping around, saving, and receiving a better deal.
Cognitive dissonance is also useful to describe and manage post-purchase issues. If a customer seems that an alternate buy would have been better it is likely he will not buy the item again. To reverse this marketers have to convince the customer constantly that the item meets his or her need and thereby help to decrease his intellectual dissonance and ensure repurchase of the same brand in the future.[citation needed]
At times intellectual resonance is triggered rather than settled to market items. The Characteristic Cards tag range “When you proper care enough to send the very best” is an example of a technique that creates pity in the customer if he or she goes for a less costly card. The competitive promotion ensures that the receiver also is aware that the item has a premium cost. This motivates the customer to buy the costly cards on special events.[citation needed]
Social technological innovation [edit]
This section requires expansion. (August 2012)
Social technological innovation as applied to security is the exploitation of various public and psychological flaws in people and business components, sometimes for transmission testing but more often for dubious factors, such as espionage against businesses, agencies, and people, typically toward the end of obtaining some illegal obtain, either of useful but restricted or personal details or for money through such methods as phishing to obtain savings consideration accessibility, or for factors of identity fraud, blackmail, and so forth. Exploitation of flaws due to causing intellectual dissonance in objectives is one of the methods used by criminals.
Challenges and credentials [edit]
A attorney may experience the adverse stress of dissonance if they must protect, and call "innocent", a customer that they think is actually guilty. On Aronson's view, however, the attorney may experience dissonance specifically because incorrectly calling the accused "innocent" disputes with the attorney's own self-concept of being an sincere personal.
Daryl Bem was an beginning writer of intellectual dissonance theory. He suggested self-perception theory as a more parsimonious alternative description of the trial outcomes. According to Bem, people do not think much about their behavior, let alone whether they are incompatible. Bem considered people in the Festinger and Carlsmith research or the induced-compliance design as inferring their behavior from their actions. Thus, when requested "Did you get the procedure interesting?" they decided that they must have discovered it exciting because that is what they informed someone. Bem recommended that people compensated $20 had a significant, external motivation for their actions and were likely to understand the cash as their reason for saying the procedure was exciting, rather than finishing that they actually discovered it exciting.[41][42]
In many trial circumstances, Bem's theory and Festinger's dissonance theory create identical forecasts, but only dissonance theory forecasts the use of upsetting stress or excitement.Lab tests have confirmed the use of excitement in dissonance circumstances.[43][44] This provides assistance for intellectual dissonance theory and creates it unlikely that self-perception by itself can consideration for all the lab outcomes.
In 1969, Elliot Aronson reformulated the idea by connecting it to the self-concept, making clear that intellectual dissonance occurs from disputes between cognitions when those disputes endanger a person's normally beneficial self-image. Thus, Aronson reinterpreted the outcomes of the unique Festinger and Carlsmith research using the induced-compliance design, revealing that the dissonance was between the knowledge, "I am an sincere person" and the knowledge, "I humiliated to someone about finding the procedure exciting."[45] Other specialists have recommended that maintaining intellectual reliability is a way to protect public self-image, rather than personal self-concept.[46] However, a latest outcome [47] seems to rule out such an description by showing revaluation of items following a choice even when people have neglected their choices.
During the 1980's, Cooper and Fazio recommended that dissonance was due to aversive repercussions, rather than inconsistency. According to this presentation, the fact that lying is incorrect and painful, not the inconsistency between cognitions, is what creates people experience bad.[48] Subsequent analysis, however, discovered that people experience dissonance even when they experience they have not done anything incorrect. For example, Harmon-Jones and co-workers revealed that people experience dissonance even when the repercussions of their statements are beneficial—as when they convince if perhaps you are learners to use contraceptives, when they, themselves are not using contraceptives.[49]
Chen and co-workers have belittled the free-choice design and have recommended that the "Rank, choice, rank" technique of studying dissonance is incorrect.[50] They claim that analysis design relies on the supposition that, if the topic rates choices in a different way in the second survey, then the model's behavior towards the choices have therefore changed. They display that there are other factors one might get different rankings in the second survey—perhaps the topics were mostly unsociable between choices. Although some follow-up research have discovered helpful proof for Chen's issues,[51] other research that have controlled for Chen's issues have not, instead indicating that the mere act of developing a choice can indeed modify choices.[14][52][53] Nevertheless, this issue remains under effective investigation.[54]
Brain [edit]
There is proof indicating that the more the anterior cingulate cortex alerts issue, the more dissonance a personal experiences and the more their behavior may modify.
Using fMRI, Van Veen and co-workers examined the sensory basis of intellectual dissonance in a customized edition of the traditional triggered complying design. While in the scanning device, associates "argued" that the unpleasant MRI environment was nevertheless a enjoyable experience. The scientists duplicated the primary triggered complying findings; associates in an trial team enjoyed the scanning device more than associates in a management team who simply were compensated to create their discussion.[55]
Importantly, replying counter-attitudinally triggered the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insular cortex; furthermore, the level to which these regions were triggered expected personal participants' level of mind-set modify. Van Veen and co-workers claim that these outcomes assistance the unique dissonance theory by Festinger, and assistance the "conflict theory" of anterior cingulate functioning.[55]
Using the 100 % free choice design, Sharot and co-workers have proven that after developing a choice, action in the striatum changes to reflect the new assessment of the choice item, improving if the item was selected and reducing if it was refused.[56] Follow-up research have mostly confirmed these outcomes.[52][57][58]
There may be transformative causes behind intellectual dissonance decrease. Researchers in a 2007 research analyzed how pre-school kids and Capuchin apes responded when provided the choice between two identical choices. The scientists had the two topic categories select between two different kinds of decals and sweets. After selecting, the two categories were provided a new choice between the item not selected and a in the same way attractive choice as the first. In range with intellectual dissonance theory, the kids and the apes select the “novel” choice over their initially unchosen choice, even though all had identical principles. The scientists determined that there were possible growth and transformative causes behind intellectual dissonance decrease.[59]
Subsequent research have been done using functional magnetic resonance picture (FMRI) technology to examine the decision-making procedure in the mind. A 2010 research revealed that during decision-making procedures where the individual is trying to decrease dissonance, action improved according to the FMRI check out in the right-inferior front gyrus, inside fronto-parietal region and ventral striatum, whereas action reduced in the anterior insula.[58] Researchers determined that clarification action may take position quickly (within seconds) without conscious thought. Moreover, the scientists stated that the mind may interact with psychological reactions in the decision-making procedure.[58]
Modeling in sensory systems [edit]
Neural system designs of knowledge have provided the necessary structure to incorporate the scientific analysis done on intellectual dissonance and behavior into one design of description of mind-set growth and modify.[60]
Various sensory system designs have been developed to predict how intellectual dissonance will influence an person's mind-set and actions. These include:
Parallel Restriction Fulfillment Processes[60]
The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes[61]
Adaptive connectionist design of intellectual dissonance[62]
Attitudes as constraint satisfaction model[63]
See also [edit]
Affective forecasting
Ambivalence, particularly the referrals to The discomfort of ambivalence and methods to manage it,[64] Love–hate connection and Breaking (psychology)
Antiprocess
Buyer's repent is a way of post-decision dissonance.
Choice-supportive tendency is a storage tendency that creates past choices seem better than they actually were.
Cognitive bias
Cognitive distortion
Cognitive inertia
Cultural dissonance is dissonance on a larger scale.
Double combine is a communicative scenario where a personal gets different or unclear messages.
Double awareness is getting pregnant of the self both as itself and as society's picture of it.
Doublethink is an idea current in Henry Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four that allows a personal to keep two unclear concepts simultaneously and accept both of them as appropriate.
Effort justified reason is the propensity to feature a higher (than objective) value to an outcome which demands an excellent effort to be able to manage a dissonance.
Emotional issue is the existence in the unconscious of different and opposite emotions concerning the same scenario.
The Great Frustration of 1844 is an example of intellectual dissonance in a spiritual perspective.
Illusion-of-truth impact declares that a personal is more likely to believe a familiar declaration than an unfamiliar one.
Information overload
Metanoia (psychology)
Shame
Speciesism
Techniques of neutralization
Terror management theory
True-believer syndrome shows carrying a post-cognitive-dissonance understanding regardless of new details.
Wishful thinking
Memory conformity